Category: Articles

Articles on food and ingredients, from the history to the chemistry.

Gorgonzola – The Italian Blue

If you like blue cheese, but you haven’t tried Gorgonzola (), you’re going to love it. If you don’t like blue cheese, and you try Gorgonzola, you might very well start to like blue cheese! In fact, next to the traditional Piccante (pungent) variety, the milder Dolce (sweet) variety meets the palate of those who are not too fond of ‘blue’ flavors.

Check out the latest episode of Thoughts on the Table, the podcast on food and food culture. Also available on iTunes and Google Play Music.

The characteristic pungent aroma of Gorgonzola Piccante is due to the aromatic molds that, over a 6 month aging period, grow to fully inhabit it. As the cheese ages, it becomes compact or even crumbly because of its natural loss of moisture (down to 30-40%). This transformation also intensifies the flavor.

A slice of Gorgonzola Piccante
A slice of Gorgonzola Piccante

The Dolce variety instead (shown in the feature image) is only aged 2 to 3 months: it has only partially established molds and still contains high amounts of moisture (45%). This results in a cheese that is only mildly blue, and that is also creamy and spreadable.

Both the Dolce and the Piccante varieties are made from whole cow milk, and they have similar percentages of fat (around 25-30%).

Cheese production makes use of specific kinds of molds (Penicillia) that over the centuries were discovered capable of improving the flavor and the texture of the product. We now know that these molds are aerobic fungi that produce enzymes capable of metabolizing the milk fats and proteins, therefore completely transforming the cheese. These molds are perfectly safe to eat since they don’t release any toxins and even have antibacterial properties. The antibiotic penicillin, in fact, derives from a mold that belongs to the same family.

Out of all of the different kinds of Penicillia, only two are responsible for the characteristic flavor of the countless varieties of blue cheese: Penicillium glaucum and Penicillium roqueforti. Gorgonzola is traditionally made using the former, but the latter can also be used.

A drum of Gorgonzola
For easier distribution, the drum of is generally cut into 4 pieces.

Molds are often associated with cheese, but in most kinds of cheese, they grow only on the rind. In blue cheese, instead, the mold is encouraged to grow deeply into the cheese paste. Since Penicillia need at least minimal levels of oxygen to survive, in the production of Gorgonzola, the uncooked curds are left unpressed to favor the formation of fissures and cavities through which the mold will be able to breathe. In order to get an even more uniform growth of the mold within the paste, when the cheese is 3-4 weeks old, the rind is perforated deeply with metal needles. The mold ends up thriving on the walls of the holes, forming the characteristic green veining. In Italian, this process is called Erborinatura from the word ‘erburin’, which means ‘parsley‘ in northern Italian dialect, in reference to the similarly green color.

Origins

The exact origins of Gorgonzola are unknown, but they certainly revolve around a city that bears the same name, 15 km East of Milan, in the core of Lombardy.

Location of Gorgonzola in Italy
Milan (green dot) and Gorgonzola (red dot) in the region Lombardy.

As early as in the 9th century, Lombardy was known for the production of a soft cheese called stracchino(1). There is evidence that the stracchino made around the town of Gorgonzola developed special characteristics that made it unique – likely it was contaminated with a particular mold which is naturally present in the caves where the cheese was ripened. The “stracchino of Gorgonzola” started being appreciated as a different kind of cheese, a delicacy that then became known in all of northern Italy.

Over time, the production of Gorgonzola expanded to other parts of Lombardy, but the city of Gorgonzola maintained its prestige until the middle of the 19th century. In 1840 writer Luigi Cattaneo wrote in his Milanese publication: Il Politecnico that “while the cheesemakers of the town of Gorgonzola kept the secret of the peculiar circumstances that make this cheese special, this cheese remained their almost exclusive privilege. But nowadays this cheese is produced in several other locations in Lombardy with the same good success, although the one that is made in the surroundings of Gorgonzola maintains higher commercial regard.”(2)

Since 1970, the production of Gorgonzola is regulated by its Consortium, and it’s limited to specific areas of Lombardy and Piedmont, as stipulated by its designation of Protected Geographical Status.

Uses

Gorgonzola and mascarpone "cake".
Gorgonzola and mascarpone “cake”.

Gorgonzola is commonly eaten by itself, usually spread on bread. The aged variety (Piccante) is sometimes paired with honey to counterbalance its intense body. For those who prefer more delicate flavors, a modern preparation exists that is even milder than Gorgonzola Dolce: a “cake” made by layering sweet Gorgonzola with mascarpone.

Gorgonzola is also widely used in cooking. The main examples see it used:

  • as a sauce for pasta or gnocchi, sometimes with the addition of walnuts;
  • in risotto, simply added when the rice is nearly cooked;
  • on pizza, alone or as one of the 4 kinds of cheese in quattro formaggi;
  • with polenta, especially baked in layers.
Gorgonzola Piccante with chestnut honey.
Gorgonzola Piccante with chestnut honey.
Pasta with Gorgonzola.
Pasta with Gorgonzola.

The wine pairings of Gorgonzola are somewhat difficult and a source of lengthy debates. There seems to be consensus, however, that the Dolce variety goes with fruity wines (Riesling, Pinot bianco, various novelli). The Piccante variety, instead, needs a stronger, sweeter wine, even fortified: various kinds of passito, as well as Port and Marsala. All agree that Gorgonzola goes well with beer, especially the Trappist kind.

Notes

1) Stracchino is a fat cheese whose name derives from the word “stracco” (“tired” in Milanese dialect), in reference to the fact that it was made with the milk of cows that were “tired” because of having just returned to the valley after spending the summer on higher pastures.
2) Luigi Cattaneo, On the way to produce the fat cheese called Stracchino of Gorgonzola, Il Politecnico 3 (1840), p. 309-322.

Addendum – Bloggers Recipes (from comments)

Thanks to my friend bloggers who accepted my invitation to share their best Gorgonzola recipes! Here is a clickable list compiled from their comments. Enjoy!

Simona (Briciole)

Roz (La Bella Vita)

Manu (Manu’s Menu)

Frank Fariello (Memorie di Angelina)

Pola (An Italian Cooking in the Midwest)

And my own:

The Italian Bar – A Licensed Coffee House for Every Time of the Day

Despite being licensed, bars in Italy are nothing like pubs. They are more similar to coffee shops, but they are actually far more than that. They are an establishment that runs all day with a wide range of food items, and a necessity for tourists with fast and affordable refreshments and services.

Bars, however, can be a source of misunderstandings and frustration due to the many unwritten rules that they conform to and to their many exceptions. This post explores the significance of bars in the Italian popular culture and gives important tips for travelers who are unfamiliar with their ins and outs.

What to get in a bar?
In an Italian bar, all coffees are espresso-based. If you ask for "a coffee" ('un caffè'), you get a single shot of espresso.
In an Italian bar, all coffees are espresso-based. If you ask for “a coffee” (‘un caffè’), you get a single shot of espresso.

Bars sell a variety of products catering to the desires of the moment, and they are often a daily routine for the Italians. Coffee is sold all day but is especially popular in the morning and after lunch and dinner. Cappuccino is almost exclusively a breakfast item (accompanied with croissants or other pastries), as are juices. Aperitifs are served before lunch and dinner – some bars offer complimentary snacks as an accompaniment. At lunchtime, many bars sell sandwiches (generically called panini in Italian, whether they are grilled or not), accompanied by sodas, beer, or wine. Some bars instead offer a more extended restaurant service, from salads and cold platters to first courses and other warm dishes. A few bars remain open in the evening turning more into pubs.

Seated or standing?

In Italy, customers should always ask themselves: “Am I allowed to bring my order to a table to enjoy it while sitting?” Ignoring this question may lead to an unpleasant experience since, in general, seating is not complimentary in a bar. The price of the items served at the table can be much higher than the price at the counter. The surcharge is a fee for being served by a waiter, occupy the table for any amount of time, but mostly for sitting in a premium location, such as in a historic piazza. When they choose to be served at the table, customers are generally allowed to sit themselves, and they are then greeted by a waiter. When ordering at the counter, instead, customers don’t have rights to a table, even if they carry their order themselves, and even if there are plenty of tables available.

Some bars, however, choose not to have table service – in these, it’s OK for the customers to carry their own orders to the tables. Generally, complimentary tables are small and unclothed, with no tableware and no menus, or high tables without chairs. When in doubt, it’s always a good idea to ask: ‘Possiamo sederci?’ (May we sit down?)

Even when paying for seating, remaining for an excessive amount of time is frowned upon in Italy. Not like in North America, where coffee shops often act as lounges where people who buy a drink gain the right to hang out with their friends, do their homework or use the free WiFi for as long as they want.

Pay before or after?

In many cases, the customers pay after, when they’re finished with their food or drinks. This is generally the case during off-peak hours, especially when sitting at a table and in other situations where the barista can easily keep track of the customers to ensure that they don’t leave without paying. Sometimes, the bar might require pre-payment by asking customers to pay at the cashier first and then present the receipt (‘scontrino’) as a voucher in order to be served at the serving counter (the barista will partially rip it to tag that it has been used). Pre-payment is always in effect if the bar has an active cashier station either located at the counter or standalone. Standalone cash registers may also sell cigarettes, transit tickets, and stamps.

When being served at the table, the bill is generally brought upon request, when the customer is ready to leave. In some cases, however, the check may be brought together with the order and payment may be required immediately. This is quite common when the seating area is located outdoors (especially on sidewalks) and it would be easy for a malevolent customer to dash without paying.

Where are the fixings?

In a bar, all coffee drinks are served in their porcelain or glass cups, on a saucer, and with a metal spoon. There is no “milk and sugar” station, just sugar packets in a container positioned on the counter. Sometimes, a sugar packet is placed directly on the saucer by the barista – this is often the case if the coffee is served at the table. Generally speaking, if Italians wish to have any milk added to their coffee, they ask for it as they order (see below). It is uncommon, although perfectly acceptable, to ask the barista for additional cold milk (in a small milk jug).

Caffè – Regular (single-shot) espresso, 20-30 ml, served in a 60 ml espresso cup
Caffè doppio – Double-shot espresso, 40-50 ml(1)
Caffè macchiato caldo (“marked” or “stained”) – Espresso with a dollop of steamed milk
Caffè macchiato freddo – Espresso with a dash of cold milk
Caffè corretto (“corrected”) – Espresso with a dash of liqueur, grappa if not specified, or brandy (e.g. Vecchia Romagna), Sambuca, or other
Caffè lungo (“long”) – Espresso obtained by allowing more water to flow through(2) (30-40 ml)
Caffè ristretto (“shrunken”) – Espresso obtained by stopping the water flow part-way through(3) (15-20 ml)
Caffè con panna (“with cream”) – Espresso with a drop of cold heavy cream
Caffè decaffeinato (“decaffeinated”) – Espresso made with decaffeinated ground coffee (popular is the brand name “Hag”)
Marocchino – Espresso with chocolate powder on top, and then a dollop of steamed milk
Cappuccino – Espresso with steamed milk(4) (at 65°C) in the proportions of 1/3 coffee, 1/3 milk, 1/3 milk foam, served in a cappuccino cup (~120 ml)
Cappuccino tiepido (“lukewarm”) – Espresso with steamed milk and some cold milk (served around 50°C)
Cappuccino ben caldo (“well hot”) – Espresso with steamed milk (warmed up to 75°C)
Latte macchiato – Espresso with a larger amount of steamed milk (with only a small layer of foam on top), served in a latte macchiato glass (~200 ml)


(1) Not as commonly ordered in Italy as it is in North America
(2) Weaker in flavor, but containing more caffeine
(3) Stronger in flavor, but containing less caffeine
(4) It’s preferable to use whole milk, for a creamier and more flavorful foam

Can I get it to go?

Getting coffee to go is quite uncommon in Italy, mostly because it only takes five minutes to drink an espresso or a cappuccino (which is never served too hot). Italians also prefer to use ceramic or glass cups, which are warmed up beforehand not to draw any heat from the freshly made coffee. The only case in which is acceptable to ask for the coffee to be served in paper cups with lids is when the coffee is meant to be carried to a work meeting in a nearby office, or when the customer can’t physically go to the bar, e.g. because they are working in a nearby store. In big cities, occasionally, bar waiters can be seen walking around the streets as they deliver coffees-to-go on a tray.

Am I even in a bar?

There are different kinds of bars, and they have different opening hours. Most bars open quite early in the morning (some as early as 5 or 6 am), catering to commuters. These bars remain open until late afternoon or early evening. Other establishments, instead, open around lunch time (with cafeteria service) or even later in the afternoon and continue until late at night (some as late as 2 or 3 am). This is often the cases for bars that operate as ‘enoteche’ (wine bars), or as ‘gelaterie’ (gelato shops).

Bars that double as pasticcerie (pastry shops) are more likely to be open during regular store hours (generally, 9.00 am to 7.30 pm). It has to be noted that not all pasticcerie offer bar service – when they do, they tend to display a “Bar Pasticceria” sign. Similarly, some restaurants also offer bar service. When they do, they also display a “Bar” sign (e.g.: “Bar Ristorante, “Bar Trattoria”, or “Bar Pizzeria”). Unlike in North America, it is generally not acceptable to stop in a restaurant (that isn’t also a bar) just for coffee or drinks.

Table Service, an Ocean Apart

Table service, the customer experience in restaurants, can be radically different between Italy and Canada. Most of my considerations can probably apply to all of North America, but in this article, I will be referring specifically to my Canadian experience.

Guest and host

In Canada, the ideal customer’s expectation of good service is to be treated like a guest at a friend’s house. When successful, the relationship between host and guest is warm and friendly. The restaurant staff’s goal is to make their guests feel at home by making themselves constantly available, should the customers need anything.

At the end of the meal, in return for the many courtesies, the guest leaves a tip according to a tradition designed to reward good service with an act of generosity.

Customer and patron

In Italy, when dining in, a service charge (usually 10%) is automatically added to the bill. It represents an actual fee, not a gratuity, explicitly named in the cheque as the cost of cover and service (‘coperto e servizio’). The extra charge is meant to account for the rental of clean tableware and linens, as well as (part of) the waiters’ wages.

The relationship between customer and waiter is therefore quite business-like: the waiter takes the order, serves the food, and the customer pays for the service. Because of this, Italians don’t have a problem with calling the waiter when they need it – they know it’s the waiter’s responsibility to assist. As a result, the waiters don’t need to constantly check on the tables.

Avoiding culture clash

Which way is better? The friendly exchange of courtesies or the contract? Each of them is the norm in their respective countries, and whether you prefer one or the other likely depends on where you were raised. The different type of customer service, however, can become problematic when the two cultures mix.

What should Italians expect when traveling to Canada? They will be surprised by how friendly the service is. They should not mind the many interruptions throughout the meal – waiters will offer free water, constantly re-filling the glasses, and will periodically check if the guests are liking the food (when asked, guests should just say the food is good unless really they don’t like it and want to send it back). At the end of the meal, they shouldn’t be surprised to have the cheque automatically brought to them without asking (something that would be considered rude in Italy, like a way to ask them to leave). The bill is generally left *face down* on the table for a reason, it’s perfectly fine to ignore it until ready to pay, before leaving.

However, tipping is supposed to be proportional to the quality of the service and, in its essence, optional. Practically, though, since waiters are often paid minimum wage, it translates into paying the server an expected percentage (nowadays, 15% and up). Not leaving a tip, or leaving a tip that is substantially lower than what is customary, is equal to making the harsh statement that the waiter can’t do their job. Since Canadians hate to make harsh statements, they will always leave a tip, and will just avoid restaurants where service is poor.

What should Canadians expect, then, when traveling to Italy? They should expect it to be a bit rough, but they should try to focus on the food and keep in mind that, as they pay for service, they have the right to demand attention if it’s not given to them (the Italians even have a saying: ‘chi spende pretende!’, those who spend demand!). Just like on an airplane they have the right to ask for an extra pillow if they so wish. Since it’s considered rude in Italy for the restaurant to talk about money when people are still seated at the table, at the end of the meal Canadians should expect to have to ask for the cheque. In fact, the Italians even have a special “scribbly” way of waving when calling for it!

In Italy, the waiter is, fundamentally, the connection between the customer and the food. If the food meets the client’s expectations, and the waiter brings the food to the client, then the waiter meets the obligation implicit with his role. The waiter can still exceed expectations, for instance when they are particularly knowledgeable about the food, or when particularly attentive to the customers, and this can certainly increase the image of the restaurant. In many cases, however, the service in restaurants just meets minimum expectations. Those restaurants can still be highly successful, provided that their food is highly regarded. It’s a matter of offer and demand – but on the market of good food.

Finally, Italian restaurant owners in Canada have to keep in mind that the expectations are different than back home. While authentic Italian food is generally highly appreciated – the Italian standards of customer service are generally highly despised. No matter how good the food is, if customer service is not up to Canadian standards, the restaurant can very rapidly build a negative image, and its success can be severely hampered.

Pasticcini, Italian Fine Pastries

Check out the latest episode of Thoughts on the Table, the podcast on food and food culture. Also available on iTunes and Google Play Music.

Pasticcini are exquisite Italian fine pastries which have been perfected over the centuries to achieve the best flavors, textures, and fragrances. In the Italian tradition, assorted pasticcini are served as a dessert, as a treat to accompany coffee, tea, or hot chocolate, or as a cake alternative for celebrations and other special occasions (in which case they are usually accompanied with ‘spumante’, the Italian sparkling wine).

The word ‘pasticcino’ is a diminutive of ‘pasticcio’, which in turn derives from Vulgar Latin pasticium, a dish made by mixing various ingredients, mostly wrapped in dough (‘pasta’).

A pastry shop display
A pastry shop display.

Pasticcini can be found in two sizes: standard (2-3″ in diameter) and mignon (1-2″). The latter has become increasingly popular thanks to its sampling size, a definite plus, given the great variety of pasticcini.

Since fine pastries are difficult and time-consuming to make at home (especially if a variety of kinds is desired), Italians prefer to buy them fresh in a ‘pasticceria’ (pastry shop). Although some bakeries also sell pasticcini, most pastry shops are independent specialized stores, have extended opening hours (they’re often open on Sunday mornings, for any last minute pastry pickup), and sometimes even double as coffee bars.

A small tray of paste da tè: chocolate and pistachio shortbreads, and'Baci di Dama' (Ladies' Kisses), a traditional Piedmontese cookie made of two crumbly hazelnut or almond halves held together with a layer of dark chocolate.
A small tray of paste da tè: chocolate and pistachio shortbreads, and ‘Baci di Dama’ (Ladies’ Kisses), a traditional Piedmontese cookie made of two crumbly hazelnut or almond halves held together with a layer of dark chocolate.

Along with pasticcini, pasticcerie often also sell shortbreads and other kinds of cookies and dry pastries. Those, however, are called ‘paste da tè’ (tea pastries) and are considered a distinct product. Nevertheless, pasticcini and paste da tè are often served side-by-side to appeal to every palate.

The Italians are traditionalists when it comes to food, and pasticcini are no exception. As an interesting consequence, it’s on traditional pasticcini that most pastry chefs showcase their best techniques. Every pastry chef needs to know how to execute them flawlessly since it is on them that they are evaluated by their customers.

There are several kinds of traditional pasticcini. Some are available all throughout Italy, some are exclusively regional, and some are only made during particular times of the year. The following can be found nationwide (although some have strong regional origins).

Cannoncini (cream horns). Among the most popular pasticcini. Made with a baked horn of puff pastry (‘pasta sfoglia’), generally filled with pastry cream (‘crema pasticcera’), which may be chocolate or hazelnut flavored. They are not to be confused with ‘cannoli’ (see below), although they sound similar because both of their names derive from ‘canna’ (reed), which they resemble.

Bigné (cream puffs). Also extremely popular. Made with choux pastry filled with pastry cream (vanilla, chocolate, coffee or hazelnut flavored), with Chantilly cream (vanilla-flavored whipped cream), or with zabaione.

Sfogliatelle Napoletane. Made of a shell similar to the Greek phyllo dough and filled with ricotta and candied peel. Originally from Naples.

Crostatine alla frutta (fruit tarts). A base of baked shortbread, with a layer of custard, topped with fresh fruit, often covered with gelatin.

Crostatine con Marron Glacé (Marron Glacé tarts).

Babà. A spongy cake dipped in sugar water and rum. Also traditional to Naples, though with Polish origins.

Cigni (swans). Bigné which have been cut in half and filled with pastry cream (on the bottom) and whipped cream (on the top). A small squiggle of puff pastry is then applied on the bigné to form the neck and head of a swan.

Cannoli. Made of a fried shell, with a ricotta-based filling and flavored with candied citrus peel or chocolate chips. Originally from Sicily.

Fiamme (flames). Drop-shaped mousse (thick foams, generally chocolate-based), on a wafer or a shortbread base, usually covered in chocolate.

Tronchetti (small trunks). Rolls of sponge cake and mousse, which are then sliced in cylindrical sections.

Tartufi al cioccolato (chocolate trouffles). Chocolate and coffee ganache covered in cocoa powder.

Mini strudel. A small version of the Austrian/German strudel, a kind of pastry filled with apples, raisins, and pine nuts.

Cassatine Siciliane. A small version of the Cassata Siciliana cake, a dessert made with sweet ricotta, sponge cake, almond paste, and candied fruit. Originally from Sicily.

Chiavi di Violino (treble clefs). Liqueur-drizzled sponge cake layered with cream, covered in dark chocolate and decorated with a treble clef made of white chocolate.

Diplomatici. Layered puff pastry, sponge cake, and custard, which is then cut in squares and sprinkled with confectioner’s sugar.

Meringhe(1). Two crisp meringues enclosing a heart of whipped cream.

A basket of pasticcini (2-3 mignon per person) is also a common hostess gift.
A basket of pasticcini (2-3 mignon per person) is also a common hostess gift.

(1) Contributed by Simona.

The Coffee Machines – The Evolution of Coffee Extraction

Is there more caffeine in an 8 oz medium roast drip, in a single shot espresso, or in an 8 oz dark roast drip? Where does the espresso crema come from? What is the difference between the Percolator and the Drip Pot? What is the Italian Moka? This article answers these and more questions by giving an overview of coffee: from its origins, to its composition, to the coffee machines and the different ways to brew it.

Let’s start from the core: the brewing process. The extraction of desirable substances from the coffee beans into water depends on three factors: the temperature of the water, the amount of time that coffee and water remain in contact, and the extent of the surface of contact (which is lower for a coarse grind and higher for a fine grind). As we will see, these parameters vary substantially between the different brewing methods.

The extraction ratio can be measured as the weight of dissolved grounds in the drink, relative to the total weight of the ground coffee used. Ideally, it should be between 18 and 22%, but higher ratios are sometimes desirable. The strength of a brew depends on the extraction ratio but also on the amount of water used: it can be expressed as the weight of dissolved grounds relative the weight of finished product. The strength ranges from 1.3% for the average drip coffee to 5.5% for espresso.

Besides its intensity, the extraction percentage affects the flavor of the brew. The acidic components, in fact, are easier to extract and tend to dominate in under-extracted coffee. Astringent and bitter components, instead, are harder to extract and therefore prevail in over-extracted coffee. This, combined with the type of coffee beans used and depending on the type of roasting, determines the overall the composition of the brew and its flavor.

Which has more caffeine? Espresso or drip?

Knowing the desired extraction and strength, we can calculate how much coffee grounds are needed for any type of coffee. Particularly:

– To make an 8 oz cup of drip coffee, at 1.3% strength, we need 0.1 oz of dissolved coffee grounds. Since the Drip Pot has a 20% extraction rate, we need to start from 0.5 oz (14 g) of ground coffee (20% of 0.5 is 0.1).

-To make a 1 oz cup of espresso (single shot), at 5.5% strength, we need 0.055 oz of dissolved coffee grounds. Since espresso machines have a slightly higher extraction of 22.5%, we need to start from 0.25 oz (7 g) of ground coffee (22.5% of 0.25 oz is 0.055 oz).

The interesting conclusion is that 1 single-shot espresso contains about half of the dissolved grounds than an 8 oz drip coffee. Therefore, if the same kind of beans is used, one espresso contains about half of the caffeine of one small drip coffee.

There are two main varieties of coffee beans: Arabica and Robusta. Arabica has higher amounts of oils, contains twice as much sugar (and as a result has higher acidity due to sugar breakdown), and has half of the caffeine found in Robusta.

During the roasting process, both varieties undergo major transformations. When the coffee beans reach a temperature of 160°C (250°F) the Maillard browning reaction causes them to develop the characteristic roasted color and aroma. Medium roasts are heated up to 190°C.

At around 200°C (390°F), part of the oils are driven to the surface and burn off causing a more intense burnt flavor. Some of the caffeine also burns off, while carbon dioxide (CO2) starts to develop and remains partially trapped in the beans. Dark roasts are heated to 220°C and therefore have less caffeine and oils than medium roasts. They do however contain CO2, which, as we will see, plays an important role in the production of the espresso crema.

Since the aromatic compounds and the CO2 are quite volatile, brewing should ideally take place within a few days of roasting, and within minutes of grinding.

As we mentioned earlier, the depth of the extraction depends on the brewing method used. Over the course of history, several brewing techniques have been developed, each with unique properties. Interestingly, most of them are still in use today in various parts of the world. Let’s go through the main ones in chronological order.

Circa 1450 – 1700. Coffee is born in the Sufi monasteries around the city of Mocha (in Yemen, southern Arabia). Legends indicate that the practice of brewing coffee is tied to the discovery of the reinvigorating effects of caffeine. Coffee then spreads to Egypt and North Africa. During the 16th century, it reaches all of the Middle East and starts to be traded throughout the Mediterranean. As it enters Italy through the trading post of Venice, coffee expands to the rest of Europe. In the 17th century, England, France, the Netherlands, and Austria all become regular coffee importers.

During these times, coffee is exclusively brewed by direct infusion. Roasted powdered beans are boiled in sugared water (fig. 1). After bringing the mix to a boil, the unfiltered coffee is poured into cups, where it rests for a few minutes to allow for the suspended particles to sediment. Since the ground coffee can be in touch with water for a long time, direct infusion tends to over extract. Moreover, the extraction continues even after pouring, turning the coffee more and more bitter as time goes by. This simple technique is still in use in the Middle East, Greece and Turkey.

Fig. 1 - Direct Infusion
Fig. 1 – Direct Infusion

1700. In France, the grounds are isolated from the water using a cloth bag and can now be easily removed after the brew is complete.

1750. Still in France, the Drip Pot (or Filter Drip) is invented. This is the first example of percolation: hot water is poured over coffee grounds, it percolates through them (pushed by gravity), and then it passes through a filter (fig. 2). Drip Pot prevents over-extraction by limiting the amount of time that the water is in contact with the grounds and by operating with water below its boiling point. This method will become today’s American favorite, also thanks to automatic drip machines.

Fig. 2 - The Drip Pot
Fig. 2 – The Drip Pot

1800. A number of new methods are introduced:

    • The Plunger Pot (also called French Press). An improvement over direct infusion thanks to a built-in filtering system (the plunger), which pushes the grounds to the bottom through a metal mesh after the desired extraction is reached (fig. 3). The metal filter allows small particles in the drink, resulting in a more velvety coffee, whereas the lack of a paper filter allows for some of the oils to be emulsified into the drink. The Plunger Pot operates a slow extraction that requires relatively coarse grinds.
Fig. 3 - The Plunger Pot
Fig. 3 – The Plunger Pot (or French Press)
    • The Percolator. Using steam pressure, water is pushed up into a tube and forced to drop on the grounds. After percolating through, the water lands in the same container where clear water used to be. The cycle can then restart until the desired strength is reached (fig. 4). Since it operates at boiling temperature and recirculates brewed coffee through the grounds, the Percolator may over-extract. This method will become America’s favorite in the 1950s.
Fig. 4 - The Percolator
Fig. 4 – The Percolator
    • The Napoletana, or Flip Pot. Originally a French invention, the Napoletana is adopted by the Italians, and from the city of Naples, it spreads to the entire country. The Napoletana is a variation of the Drip Pot where the water is brought to a boil in a lower chamber over a source of heat. The coffee maker is then flipped upside down, the hot water percolates through the grounds and is collected into the other chamber (fig. 5). The Napoletana will remain popular until gradually replaced by the “Moka” (see below).
Fig. 5 - The Napoletana
Fig. 5 – The Napoletana
    • Vacuum, or Siphon Brewer (1830). Steam pressure pushes hot water from a lower chamber into an upper one, where it mixes with ground coffee. The pressure sustains the column of water and the infusion can occur for as long as desired. When the device is removed from the heat, the pressure of the water column drops, allowing the infusion to go back down to the original chamber, through a metal filter (fig. 6). Despite the name, no actual vacuum is created by this coffee maker – the force that pushes the coffee through the filter is exclusively gravity. The Vacuum Brewer is appreciated in Japan because of its ceremonial character.
Fig. 6 - Vacuum Brewer
Fig. 6 – Vacuum Brewer

1855. The first espresso machine is presented at Paris Expo. The machine is capable of producing individual shots of coffee expressly “on demand”, hence the name. The operating principle is simple: hot water is pushed at high pressure through finely ground coffee (fig. 7). The result, however, is a completely new product. The process extracts the oils contained in the coffee beans, which are emulsified into droplets that bound to the coffee particles in suspension in the water. The emulsification gives the drink a syrupy consistency that binds to our taste buds, accentuating the coffee flavor. The fast brewing process also rapidly extracts the CO2 stored in the grounds, causing the aeration of the emulsion and producing the persistent foam known as crema (Italian for “cream”).

Fig. 7 - The Espresso Machine
Fig. 7 – The Espresso Machine

1905. Desiderio Pavoni founds in Milan the first company that mass produces espresso machines. Throughout the 20th century, the espresso machine becomes more refined and new standards are determined in terms of ideal brewing parameters. The best results are obtained by heating water to 93°C, and by pumping it at 9 bars through a 7 g patty of compressed grounds (for a single-shot). The extraction takes 20 – 30 seconds and produces 30 – 40 ml of coffee (1 – 1.5 oz).

1933. The Italian “Moka” is patented by Luigi De Ponti for Alfonso Bialetti. Also known in Italy as ‘caffettiera’ (coffee maker), the Moka is a particular kind of percolator where the water goes through coffee grounds while still on its way up, as it is pushed into a funnel by steam pressure (fig. 8). Just like the espresso machine, the Moka operates a quick extraction and requires finely ground coffee. Since it operates at boiling temperature, it produces a slightly over-extracted coffee, which is however popular in Italian homes.

Fig. 8 - The Italian Moka
Fig. 8 – The Italian Moka

1970. Home espresso machines appear, but they have limited success because expensive and hard to operate.

1990-2000. More practical home espresso machines enter the market. These can be fully automatic (with a built-in grinder) or based on coffee pods or capsules. The new machines are more reliable and increase in popularity.

To conclude the overview, here is a summary of the various brewing methods with their distinguishing properties.

Brew Type Brewing Method Brewing Pressure Filtering Material Filtering Pressure
Greek/Turkish Direct Infusion None None N/A
Vacuum Brewing Direct Infusion None Metal Above Gravity
French Press Direct Infusion None Metal Above Gravity
Drip Coffee Percolation Gravity Paper, metal, plastic Gravity
Napoletana Percolation Gravity Metal Gravity
Percolator Multiple Percolation Gravity Metal Gravity
Italian Moka Percolation Steam Metal Steam
Espresso Percolation Pump Metal Pump

Links and references:

– David Joachim, Andrew Schloss, A. Philip Handel. The Science of Good Food: The Ultimate Reference on How Cooking Works. 2008.
– Harold McGee. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. 2nd edition (2004).

– Turkish coffee http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_coffee
– Vacuum brewing http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_brewer
– French press http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_press
– Drip Coffee – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drip_brew
– Napoletana – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neapolitan_flip_coffee_pot
– Percolators http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percolator
– Italian Moka – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moka_pot
– Espresso – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espresso

Copyright notices:

– The vintage poster used for this article (by Henri Privat-Livemont, published in Paris in 1897) is royalty-free.
– All illustrations © Quatro Fromaggio. All rights reserved.

Tomatoes and Pomodori – Differences Between Italy and North America

Everyone who has visited Italy agrees – Italian tomatoes are much more than a condiment for burgers or a colorful decoration! They are indisputably full of flavor, a fundamental part of the diet of the Italians, and a defining ingredient in their cuisine.

Originally domesticated in Mexico and only brought to Europe by the Spanish traders in the 1700’s, similar tomato varieties are found in both North America and Italy. Why is the flavor so much different then? The composition of the soil and the exposure to sunlight are certainly involved, but the determining factor in the difference of flavor is that most tomatoes found in North America have been cut while still green to facilitate distribution. In Italy, instead, they are generally grown locally and allowed to ripen on the vine. Note that tomatoes sold “on the vine” in North America may still have been separated from the plant well before ripening.

Ethylene.
Ethylene.

For the fruit and vegetable industry, the advantage of unripe distribution is enormous. Green produce is easier to handle – it doesn’t bruise as easily and doesn’t need to be delivered as promptly. However, only climacteric fruits(1) (of which tomatoes are part) have the ability to ripen after they have been cut. During their development, climacteric fruits store sugar in the form of starch. When they are fully grown, the plant starts producing ethylene, a colorless gas that operates as a phytohormone in organizing the ripening process. When exposed to ethylene, fruits increase their respiration and the accumulated starch is converted back into sugar. During this process, the fruits themselves start producing ethylene, which in turn creates a ripening cycle that affects the entire plant and the ones nearby.

Ethylene can also be artificially supplied to picked unripe produce with a similar ripening effect. This allows the fruit distributors to maintain the produce green until it’s about to reach the shelves, and then gas it to cause it to ripen. Unfortunately, despite their mature appearance, fruits that have been cut too early severely lack flavor. Moreover, these fruits tend to have a shorter shelf life than their naturally ripened counterparts.

Among climacteric fruits, bananas, avocados, kiwis, and pears can fully ripen after being picked – there is no particular advantage to allow these fruits to ripen on their trees. On the other hand, tomatoes, apples, apricots, peaches, plums, mangoes, figs, cantaloupe, and nectarines keep on improving the longer they stay attached to their plants.

Non-climacteric fruits like citrus, pineapples, strawberries, and melons don’t store sugars in the form of starch and, when cut off their vines, they arrest their development and only start to degrade, rather than ripen(2).

Tomatoes had a very slow diffusion in Italy. In addition to their late introduction, they encountered a strong resistance due to their resemblance to the botanically related and highly poisonous nightshade. It took until the beginning of the 20th century for tomatoes to become popular. At that point, however, they became so deeply intertwined with Italian cuisine, that they changed it forever. They brought a depth of flavor that never before was found in a vegetable, and it’s nowadays impossible to imagine Italian food without tomatoes.

The remarkable complexity of tomatoes is well represented by their distinct parts, each contributing in different ways to the flavor.

Cuticle(1); outer fruit wall(2); central pith (3); seeds and semi-liquid jelly and juice (4).
Cuticle(1); outer fruit wall(2); central pith (3); seeds and semi-liquid jelly and juice (4).

Most of the tomato flavor lies in the outer wall (the sweetest part) and in the cuticle (the thin and resistant skin). The jelly and juice surrounding the seeds are instead acidic. As a result, seeded and peeled tomatoes lack flavor and acidity. In cooking, it’s recommended to keep all parts of the tomato fruit together(2), and then strain the resulting product to eliminate any unwanted seeds and skins.

The proportions of skin, walls, jelly, and seeds vary across the different cultivars. Therefore, each of them has different culinary uses. Here are some of the most common Italian preparations that are normally associated with the main tomato varieties. To be noted that tomato juice as a drink is not listed since it isn’t popular in Italy.

Standard globe tomatoes

(Round, smooth, and flattened at the top and bottom. Generally 4-celled, with plenty of juice and seeds.)

Tomatoes are healthy, both raw and cooked. While raw tomatoes contain higher levels of Vitamin C, the antioxidant lycopene (the carotenoid responsible for the red coloring) is boosted by the cooking process and protects the human body from the cell and tissue damage caused by free radicals.

Partly or barely ripe globe tomatoes are used in salads, either by themselves, cut into slices or wedges, or with other veggies (e.g.; cucumbers and bell peppers). Salt, vinegar, and oil are normally used as a dressing. Globe tomatoes are also excellent when paired up with fresh cheese, such as mozzarella, bocconcini, fior di latte, cottage cheese, or burrata. Caprese salad, for instance, consists of tomato and mozzarella, with olive oil and optional basil or oregano. Green globe tomatoes are pickled in vinegar and oil and had as a side.

Coeur de Boeuf (or Beefsteak)

(Big and irregularly shaped, wider than tall. Multi-celled, moderately rich in juice and seeds.)
The stupendously flavorful coeur the boeuf is used in big slices in salads or in sandwiches.

Beefsteak tomato with burrata, olive oil, and oregano.
Beefsteak tomato with burrata, olive oil, and oregano.

Cherry or Campari tomatoes

(Small and 2-celled.)
Also used in salads, whole or halved, fully ripe Campari or cherry tomatoes are added to meat or fish stews.

Campari tomatoes on the vine.
Campari tomatoes on the vine.

Plum tomatoes, e.g.: Roma or San Marzano

(Oblong and smooth, more “mealy” and with fewer seed compartments.)
Strained raw plum tomatoes are used on pizza. Their mealy texture makes them not as appealing to be eaten raw, but they are the preferred choice for all tomato sauces, generally flavored with onion, or with garlic (as in ‘marinara’), or with chili pepper (as in ‘ arrabbiata’, which also has garlic). Plum tomatoes are also best for canning, either strained, chopped or whole (usually peeled, as in the typical “pelati”). In the south of Italy, where in the summer the production of tomatoes often exceeds the consumption needs, canning of strained tomatoes (“passata”) is a common family activity.

Grape tomatoes

(Small plum tomatoes, the size of cherry tomatoes but oblong and mealier.)
Grape tomatoes are generally used in salads, usually whole.

(1) Tomatoes are fruits, being the development of the flowers’ ovaries and containing the plant’s seeds.
(2) Harold McGee. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. 2nd edition (2004).

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Italian Myths – 6 Italian Food Staples Unknown in Italy

This article is about “Italian” dishes, products, and terms that don’t actually exist in Italy – true Italian myths like Spaghetti with Meatballs (an Italian-American creation), Caesar salad and Italian soda (successful inventions of Italian immigrants), Fettuccini Alfredo, Italian Wedding Soup and “Al fresco” dining (specific Italian items mistaken as traditional).

Check out the latest episode of Thoughts on the Table, the podcast on food and food culture. Also available on iTunes and Google Play Music.

Despite their Italian roots, these products don’t represent today’s Italian dining and, in that regard, they can’t be considered authentic. However, they are historically important and offer interesting clues on the North American interpretation of Italian food.

1. Spaghetti with (big) meatballs

Probably the biggest Italian myth, widely featured in many Italian restaurants in North America, spaghetti with (big) meatballs are practically absent in Italy. Meatballs on their own, instead, with their many variations, are found almost everywhere in the country under the name ‘polpette’ (from ‘polpa’, pulp).

How did meatballs end up on spaghetti, then? A similar dish with small meatballs on noodles still exists in parts of southern Italy. As a possible explanation, with their arrival in the big American cities, Italian immigrants found a wider availability of meat and quickly switched away from their vegetable-centered diet. Their deeply rooted craving for pasta, however, didn’t abandon them. As the Italians were being assimilated into the American culture, they also started to favor a large single course (as opposed to multiple smaller courses) and more intense use of spices (especially garlic and oregano). This resulted in the combination of spaghetti and meatballs in a rich tomato sauce, which turned into the iconic dish known in North America.

2. Fettuccini Alfredo

Another big Italian myth is Alfredo sauce, along with its most famous use in Fettuccini Alfredo. The name “Alfredo sauce” is almost completely absent in Italy, although there are plenty of pasta sauces that are similarly based on the combination of butter and Parmigiano. For instance, egg noodles, gnocchi, and meatless ravioli (e.g.: with mushrooms, truffles, or ricotta and spinach) are often served with melted butter (sometimes infused with fresh sage) and grated Parmigiano. This type of finish simply goes under the name of “al burro”, with butter. In Rome, egg noodles with butter and Parmigiano are often called “alla Romana”, Roman-style.

Why is this sauce so famously called “Alfredo” in North America, then? The history behind it is well known, though parts of it are mixed with legend. In 1914, Alfredo di Lelio, a Roman restaurateur who was popular among American tourists, named his butter and cheese linguine after himself. According to the legend, the dish caught the attention of early Hollywood actors Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks, who were in Rome for their honeymoon. When they returned to the US, the actors introduced the dish to their Hollywood friends, making it famous. In 1943 Alfredo di Lelio sold his restaurant, but the new owner kept the menu and is still in business under the name “Alfredo alla Scrofa“. In 1950, Alfredo di Lelio and his son opened a new restaurant in a different location and called it “Il vero Alfredo“, the real Alfredo, which is now managed by Alfredo’s nephews. Both restaurants are popular with North American tourists that want to taste the original Alfredo recipe. Besides these two restaurants, in Italy, “Alfredo” is just a first-name (Alfred).

3. Italian soda and Italian cream soda

As one can easily imagine, there is nothing called “Italian soda” in Italy. And there is also nothing that tastes like it. Italy only has a handful of traditional sodas, the main ones are ‘aranciata’ (orange-based), ‘gassosa’ (clear, intensely sparkling and with a sweet lemon flavor), ‘cedrata’ (from the citron fruit), and ‘chinotto’ (based on the uniquely flavored chinotto citrus). North American “Italian sodas”, instead, come in a wide variety of flavors (e.g.: cherry, raspberry, pomegranate, grape, peach, strawberry), all of which tend to be sweeter and more intense than their Italian counterparts.

How did Italian sodas happen, then? Probably from the Sicilian tradition of making refreshing drinks by pouring small amounts of concentrated syrups in iced still or sparkling water, or on shaved ice (which is what the Italians call a ‘granita’). The most popular flavors are lemon, mint, tamarind, ‘orzata’ (almond flavored), and ‘amarena’ (from sour black cherries). It appears that the Torani Company, a famous syrup maker from Italy, introduced Italian sodas in 1925, in San Francisco, by adding their syrups to soda water. The drink that resulted was well received by the American palate, and more flavors were then added.

If Italian soda is not really Italian, then “Italian cream soda” is even less so! Industrially made cream soda is usually flavored with vanilla, a pastry-like aroma that would be strange to Italians in a drink. In some North American bars and cafes, cream soda is made by adding cream to carbonated water, which sounds even stranger if not utterly disgusting to any Italian.

4. Caesar salad

With absolutely nothing to do with the well known Roman emperor, numerous sources trace the creation of Caesar dressing back to the 1920s and attribute it to Cesare Cardini, an Italian immigrant who owned restaurants in California and in Mexico. According to the legend, chef Cardini came up with his famous dressing by combining leftovers that he found in his kitchen: romaine lettuce, olive oil, garlic, raw egg, lemon juice, Worcestershire sauce (which is lightly flavored with anchovies), and Parmesan. The dressing quickly became popular with visiting Hollywood’s celebrities and Cardini expanded his business into large-scale production. In 1948 Cardini trademarked his recipe, but he couldn’t patent the “Caesar Salad” name because it was already entrenched in popular culture. When he died, his daughter Rosa took on the business and worked on expanding the Cardini brand, which she then sold to a third party.

Despite the fact that the flavors in Caesar salad meet the Italian palate, this dish is unknown in Italy except for a few restaurants that cater to a North American clientele.

5. Italian wedding soup

Italian wedding soup is a completely misrepresented dish, not as much for the “Italian” adjective, but for the “wedding” one. There is no wedding soup in Italy – soups are generally humble dishes that lack any festive connotations. The name, in fact, likely comes from a mistranslation of ‘minestra maritata’, married soup, in which vegetables (escarole, cabbage, endive) and meat (sausage or meatballs) symbolically marry in one single dish.

6. “Al fresco” dining

Although the Italian words “al fresco” are a common way to say in the freshness of the outdoors, the association between “al fresco” and outdoor dining is not particularly strong in Italy. In the hot Italian summers, dining outdoors is a treat for many. As a result, restaurants often feature patios and gardens or obtain authorization to set up tables on the sidewalks. Despite this, the phrase “mangiare all’aperto”, eating outside, is far more common than “mangiare al fresco”, possibly because “al fresco” also carries the negative connotation of meaning in jail.

References and further readings:

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Amaretti and Amaretto

Check out the latest episode of Thoughts on the Table, the podcast on food and food culture. Also available on iTunes and Google Play Music.

Amaretti cookies and Amaretto liqueur are both well known in Italy and have been gaining popularity worldwide. The word ‘amaretto’ comes from the Italian ‘amaro’ (bitter) in reference to the sharp flavor of bitter almonds or apricot kernels. Despite the name, both products are predominantly sweet, and their bitterness only enhances the depth of flavor. Amaretti cookies are a treat to eat on their own, or they are used as an ingredient in desserts and even in some savory dishes. The Amaretto liqueur is a classic accompaniment to coffee at the end of a meal or used in cocktails, long drinks, and to flavor hot chocolate. This article considers both the cookie and the liqueur, starting from their key ingredients: bitter almonds or their close relatives, apricot kernels.

Bitter almonds differ from sweet almonds far more than in bitterness. Sweet almonds were born as a natural mutation of bitter almonds lacking amygdalin, a compound that is found in the kernels of many stone-fruits (apricots and peaches included). When such kernels are crushed, the amygdalin breaks down into glucose, the aromatic benzaldehyde (which is responsible for the sharp almond flavor), and the highly toxic hydrogen cyanide (HCN). Each bitter almond may contain an average of 6 mg of HCN, which, incidentally, is far more than the amount of HCN found in the smoke of one cigarette (0.01 to 0.4 mg) and which can seriously harm an adult.

Benzaldehyde

When amygdalin is not present, however, benzaldehyde is also missing – sweet almonds lack a lot of the flavor of their bitter counterparts and are impractical for use in the pastry and confectionery industry. In North America, bitter almonds are strongly regulated due to the cyanide content and are not commercially available; almond flavoring (extracted from a variety of other sources) is used instead. In Europe, moderate amounts of bitter almonds as well as apricot kernels (called ‘armelline’ in Italian), are used despite their toxicity after blanching, which reduces the HCN, making them safe (in small amounts) even as an uncooked paste, e.g. to flavor marzipan.

Almonds are native to western Asia and the Middle East and adapted well to the Mediterranean climate, where they still grow naturally. Sweet almonds, possibly identified by the early farmers, have been cultivated since the early Bronze Age (3000-2000 BCE). Nowadays, according to the FAO, California is the largest producer (1.4 million tons in 2010), with Italy coming in 6th (85.500 tons), after Spain, Iran, Morocco, and Syria.

Almonds with shell, shelled almonds, and blanched almonds

The best example of the use of apricot kernels is in the almond macaroons known as amaretti, of which they constitute 10-20% in weight. The earliest written recipes for amaretti (as early as 1725) describe them as crunchy on the outside and soft on the inside, and made with egg whites, sugar, sweet and bitter almonds, and no flour. Nowadays, different kinds of amaretti exist – some that follow similar recipes, and some that also contain flour (wheat, rice, corn, or potato) for added body. Texture-wise, amaretti range from soft and mildly chewy to light and crunchy.

Ricciarelli

Amaretti vary substantially throughout the Italian territory. In Sicily, Pasta di Mandorle (almond paste) is very popular and used in many kinds of pastries. In Sardinia, well known are Sospiri, made with sweet almonds and lemon rind. In Lazio, the Amaretti of Fiuggi and of Guarcino are made of sweet and bitter almonds, egg whites, and sugar on a disc of wafer paper. Also from Lazio, the Paste Reali are a typical Christmas cookie made with sweet almonds, sugar, and baking powder. From Tuscany, soft and sugar-coated Ricciarelli are popular in all of northern Italy. In Liguria, renowned are the soft almond cookies from Sassello (on the Apennines, at the border with Piedmont), made with sweet almonds and apricot kernels. In Emilia-Romagna, well known is the Amaretto di Modena, crunchy on the outside and soft on the inside, made with sweet and bitter almonds. In Piedmont, the crunchy Amaretti di Mombaruzzo are made with sugar, egg whites, sweet almonds, and apricot kernels. In Lombardy, the soft and irregularly shaped Amaretti di Gallarate are also made with sweet almonds and apricot kernels. Also from Lombardy is the famous Amaretto di Saronno (from the homonymous town). Particularly well known is the version commercialized by D. Lazzaroni & C. called Amaretti Originali and made exclusively of sugar, apricot kernels (19%), and egg white.

Amaretti del Chiostro Autentici

Recently, a different but related company: Paolo Lazzaroni & Figli (PLF) also entered the amaretti market with Amaretti del Chiostro Autentici. PLF was founded by Paolo Lazzaroni in 1851; in 1888, his brother, Davide Lazzaroni, started “D. Lazzaroni & C.” (better known as Lazzaroni). PLF historically focused on liqueurs (especially Amaretto, see below), whereas Lazzaroni mainly produced cookies (especially amaretti), both following the original recipe that belonged to the Lazzaroni family well before both companies were founded (since 1718, according to a legend). Despite the attempt of Lazzaroni to patent their amaretti recipe, PLF was authorized to market their cookies under a different name. Amaretti del Chiostro are advertised as made of apricot kernels, sugar, and egg white.

Amaretti di Saronno are used as an ingredient in several preparations, either whole, crushed, or crumbled. Among the many desserts, particularly famous is the Piedmontese Bônet, a chocolate pudding with crumbled amaretti and rum. Also well known are Pesche Ripiene (stuffed peaches), baked half peaches filled with crushed amaretti, egg yolks, sugar, and dark chocolate. Amaretti are also featured in important savory dishes, such as Tortelli di Zucca (Lombardy), Gnocchi di Zucca e Amaretti (pumpkin and amaretti gnocchi), and Fritto Misto alla Piemontese (Piedmontese mixed fry), which consists of fried entrails and fried Amaretti di Mombaruzzo (softened in milk and breaded).

Disaronno Originale

Just like the amaretti cookies, the Amaretto liqueur is also made with bitter almonds or with apricot kernels, this time in the form of an infusion. Since alcohol is particularly effective in extracting the benzaldehyde, there is no hydrogen cyanide in the liqueur, and even no traces of nuts in it, making it safe for those who have allergies. Amaretto has nothing to do with ‘amaro‘, a distinctly bitter herbal liqueur usually had as a digestive.

Being an infusion, the Amaretto liqueur can be easily made at home. Just like for Limoncello, many Italian families make their own by soaking minced bitter almonds (and/or apricot kernels) in pure alcohol (although brandy can also be used).

The historical origin of Amaretto is unknown, but the legend goes that it was invented in Saronno in 1525. According to the tale, a young innkeeper created a concoction of almond and brandy as a gift for the painter Bernardino Luini out of gratitude for choosing her as a model for the painting dedicated to the Virgin Mary, in the city’s sanctuary. The story is also endorsed by ILLVA Saronno S.p.A., the firm that makes the world-famous “Disaronno Originale” (28% vol.), an “Italian liqueur flavored with herbs and fruits soaked in apricot kernel oil”. The company’s name is the acronym of “Industria Lombarda Liquori Vini e Affini”, literally: Lombard Factory of Liquors, Wines, and Similar goods.

Less known outside of Italy, Disaronno’s main competitor is the “Lazzaroni Amaretto” (24% vol.) by Paolo Lazzaroni & Figli (PLF), which started being produced in 1851. PLF’s Amaretto owes its “delicate almond/apricot flavor” to an infusion of crushed amaretti cookies, which were made according to the Lazzaroni family’s recipe.

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Search Queries

One of the most interesting aspects of keeping a blog is to look up the statistics on how people come across it. Aside from being referred by other websites, many visitors stumble upon the blog by using search engines. When they do, the exact sentence that they typed in into the search bar is collected in the statistics (although anonymized).

This atypical post contains the verbatim transcripts of some of the most interesting search queries that I have seen over the 15 months of running Quatro Fromaggio and Other Disgraces on the Menu. Some of these queries led the visitors to relevant articles which hopefully answered them. Some other queries instead brought up pages that did not satisfy the visitor at all. For some of those, this post also tries to provide some answers. In a way, this post was written by the visitors themselves!

To get started, something that surprised me. Some people were able to get here by performing extremely generic searches. Here are some examples:
Q: what to eat in Italy
Q: type of italian food
Q: typical italian breakfast
Q: various cheese names and their origin
Q: frequently mispronounced Italian
Q: most often misspelled italian words
A: Answering these questions is really hard, but if you read this blog you’ll hopefully get an idea 🙂

Speaking of spelling, many visits came from people who were unsure how to write Italian words. For instance:
Q: correct spelling of margarita pizza
Q: correct spelling of osso bucca
Q: correct spelling of proscuitto
Q: foccaccia misspelling
Q: fromaggio or formaggio
A: Pizza Margherita, Osso Buco, Prosciutto, Focaccia, Formaggio (see Top Misspelled).

Other people were instead completely confused on the meaning of some Italian words:
Q: what is formaggio cheese
Q: how many cheeses i n qu atro formaggi pizza
Q: how many cheese’s in a formaggi cheese
Q: what is formaggio cheese in english
Q: is parmesan cheese the same as formaggio cheese
Q: what cheese can i use in place of formaggio
A: ‘Formaggio‘ is Italian for cheese. “Parmesan” is the English translation of Parmigiano, a type of formaggio.

Q: in cuisine what does colazione mean
Q: colazione for breakfast
A: ‘Colazione‘ is Italian for breakfast.

Some people got here while looking for tips and tricks on Italian food and wine. These are some examples:
Q: why should cored wine bottles be stored on their side?
A: To keep the cork wet, as a dry cork will shrink and let some air into the bottle.

Q: “passito de pantelleria “once opened”
A: Fortified wines such as Passito di Pantelleria usually keep really well, they can be stored in a cool place or in the fridge for quite some time. See the Wine and Italy article for more information.

Q: porcini risotto “dirty water”
Q: do i have to wash porcini mushrooms before rehydrating them
A: The leftover water where the mushrooms have been re-hydrated may or may not be clean (it depends on whether the mushrooms had been cleaned before being dried). Personally, I don’t find that using that water adds that much flavor to my risotto, so I discard it. However, I don’t squeeze or rinse the re-hydrated mushrooms.

Q: perforated pan on top of a pizza stone
Q: perforated pizza disc versus regular pizza disc
A: As far as I know, the perforated pan works better than a regular pizza pan, but it’s used directly in the oven – not on top of a pizza stone. The pizza stone (alone) works best, but it’s harder to use.

Q: can prosciutto ham be kept unrefrigerated
A: No. The whole uncut prosciutto can be stored at low temperatures; once opened it needs to go in the fridge.

Q: where to fill demi johns with amarone della valpolicella
A: I don’t know, but let me know as soon as you find out!

Sometimes the results of searches must have been really disappointing! For example for queries like:
Q: dolcetto d’asti wine kit
A: Seriously? You can’t have a wine kit for a DOC wine, sorry! Unless of course you live in Piedmont 🙂

Q: what white wine goes with limoncello
A: Limoncello is a liqueur. Why would you pair a wine and a liqueur?

Other times instead, people were really onto something. For instance:
Q: why italians call a croissant, brioche?
A: Because they don’t know French pastries 🙂

Q: is gelati plural for gelato
A: Yes!

Q: is formaggio another word for cheese
A: You got it!

People also wondered about weird stuff, or they wanted to know they’re not alone:
Q: what is the italian gelati flavour that tastes like cough medicine
A: Amarena? (Sour cherry)

Q: most popular mouthwash in italy
A: I don’t know… but it’s probably mint flavored.

Q: which type of pasta goes best with aglio
A: Aglio is Italian for garlic. I hope you mean ‘aglio, olio e peperoncino’, in which case I’d say ‘spaghetti’.

Q: soft meringue is disgusting
A: I agree 🙂

Some people wanted to know more about the Italian multi-course meal:
Q: italian courses in a meal
A: See the Italian Courses article.

Q: what is companatico and why am i charged for it
A: ‘Companatico’ is the collective name given to anything that goes with bread. That is the entire meal 🙂 No wonder why you were charged!

Or they had specific questions about the Italian breakfast:
Q: italians eat cold cuts for breakfast
A: Some do, but most don’t. It’s more common in the northern regions, near the border with Austria.

Q: qhat to eat dor breakfast in italian bars
A: The most popular breakfast in bars is cappuccino and croissant. See the Breakfast or Colazione article.

Q: what do italians eat for brunch
A: Brunch is not an Italian tradition. When Italians feel like a late breakfast, they just call it early lunch.

Q: reasons italians don’t have milk in their coffee
A: A lot of Italians do, actually. Not the majority though.

Q: what do italians enjoy with their coffee
A: It depends – something sweet, some chocolate, a glass of mineral water.

Lots of searches were also about autogrill, aperitivo and antipasto.
Q: autogrill panini italy
Q: camogli autogrill
Q: how to order at autogrill italy
A: See the Autogrill article. It’s particularly interesting that people don’t know how to order at an autogrill. It’s probably not the most obvious process 🙂

Q: appertivo – free buffet offered at bars during the happy hour
Q: best aperitivo in milan
Q: non alcoholic aperitivo
A: See the Aperitivo article.

Q: antipasto pickled in oil
Q: antipasto with tuna and pickled vegetables
Q: types of green olives for antipasto
A: See the Antipasto article.

Many people were interested in learning more about Italian wine:
Q: term for wine in italy with atleast 1% more alcohol than the legal minimum
Q: uva fragola wine illegal italy
Q: what does the term “novello” indicate on a wine label?
A: The term for a wine whose alcohol level is greater by at least 1% than the minimum established for its designation is ‘Superiore’. The wine “Fragolino” (made with ‘uva fragola’, Concord grape) is illegal in Italy. The term ‘Novello’ indicates that the wine has been bottled within the end of the year of when (at least 30% of) its grapes have been harvested. See the Wine and Italy article for more information.

Or Italian cheese:
Q: mozzarella cheese in north america compared to italy
A: Italian mozzarella is better than North American mozzarella, and mozzarella from Naples is better than mozzarella from Milan.

Q: what cheese is aged less than 6 months
A: All fast and medium ripening cheeses (e.g.: Mascarpone, Taleggio, Gorgonzola). See the Formaggio Cheese article for more information.

Q: what is the name for cottage cheese in italy
Q: what kind of cheese is sottilette
A: The Kraft product “Jocca” is cottage cheese. ‘Sottilette’ is (processed) cheese slices.

Q: what cheese do you use in quatro formaggi
A: There isn’t a rule, any four kinds of cheese will do. On pizza, they are usually chosen between gorgonzola, scamorza, ricotta, fontina, grana padano; plus of course mozzarella (which may or may not be counted).

Q: formaggio taleggio in north america buy
A: Specialty Italian stores usually have it.

Q: what kind of cheese mixes well with gorgonzola
A: It’s an interesting question. Gorgonzola is normally eaten by itself (delicious on bread!). It is however mixed with other cheese when making cheese sauces, or on gorgonzola pizza (where mozzarella is also added). Another interesting mix is the Torta al Gorgonzola e Mascarpone.

Or gelato:
Q: ice cream in italy
Q: semi fredi gelato
Q: what is the meaning of gelato
A: ‘Gelato’ literally means frozen. It may resemble ice-cream, but it’s a completely different product. A ‘semi-freddo’ is the equivalent of an ice cream cake. See the article on Gelato vs. Ice Cream for more information.

Or even the soft drink “Chinotto”:
Q: what does chinotto taste like
Q: aftertaste chinotto
A: Chinotto is a citrus used to make a popular Italian soft drink. Its bitter aftertaste makes it an acquired flavor.

Italian dressing is also often puzzling to people:
Q: what kind of vinegar is in italian dressing?
Q: what oil is most commonly used in italian dressing
Q: different types of italian dressings
Q: how do italians dress their salads
Q: what kind of oil and vinegar goes on a table
A: See the Italian Dressing article.

People were also interested in the proper way to cook pasta, and some were particularly confused on this regard! For instance:
Q: why it is suggegted to cook the food in salty water
Q: how salty should water for pasta be?
Q: how much salt stays with pasta
A: Salted water gives flavor to the pasta and makes it less likely to stick to itself. Typically, ½ Tbsp of salt is needed for every 4 cups of water. Not much salt will be actually absorbed by the pasta. See the Cooking Pasta 101 article for more information.

Q: “dried egg noodles” gram per person
Q: how much fresh pasta for a first course
Q: how much pasta is a serving in italy?
Q: 80g raw pasta how much cooked
Q: how much is 60g of pasta
A: See the Cooking Pasta 101 article.

Q: which italian pasta doesnt overcook?
Q: what does it mean when it says cook pasta raw
A: Every pasta eventually overcooks. Quality durum semolina pasta takes longer to cook and therefore it also takes longer to overcook. Cooking pasta ‘raw’ doesn’t mean anything, cooking pasta ‘al dente’ (to the tooth) means that the cooked pasta should be firm enough to require it to be chewed. See the Pasta 101 article for more information.

People were also quite interested in gnocchi:
Q: what sauce should gnocchi be served with?
Q: fist size gnocchi
Q: gnocchetti alla romana
Q: ricer alternative gnocchi
A: Gnocchi are served pretty much with any kind of pasta sauces. Perhaps we can consider ‘canederli‘ as fist-size gnocchi. ‘Gnocchi alla Romana’ are made with semolina flour (and no potatoes). In making gnocchi, a potato masher or a food mill can be used as an alternative to the potato ricer.

But they were mostly curious about “Pizzoccheri della Valtellina” – the article which has the highest number of hits to date:
Q: pizzoccheri meaning
Q: pizzoccheri what sort of cheese should i use
Q: what is an equivalent to valtellina casera cheese
A: the name Pizzoccheri has nothing to do with pizza. According to their official website, it derives from ‘pinzocheri’, which jokingly means “bigot people”. ‘Valtellina Casera’ cheese can be replaced with other mild semi-cooked cheeses (such as young Fontina, Montasio, Raclette or Gouda).

Finally, other people were instead more into science and wanted to find out how certain ingredients compare between Italy and North America.

For instance, they look for facts about olive oil:
Q: facts about italy’s olive oil
Q: fats and oils triangle
A: See the Olive Oil Facts article.

Or about rice:
Q: indica and japonica rice examples
Q: relative absorption of water different type of rice
A: See the Rice Demystified article.

Or milk:
Q: difference between italian and american milk
Q: is milk in italy fortified with vitamin d
Q: pasteurized milk shelf life canada italy
Q: does milk in italy taste different
A: Italian milk has a shorter shelf life, and it’s not fortified with Vitamin D. The difference in flavor is mostly due to the cows’ different diet.

Q: is italian milk homoginized
A: Yes, it’s homogenized.

Q: does italy have pasteurized milk
A: Yes, though unpasteurized milk can also be found. See the There’s Milk and Milk article for more information.